Differentiation describes the way certain individuals came to exercise political, social and economic control over others. This gave rise to three social categories in pre-colonial societies – chiefs, commoners and clients.
Bhaca women sing and dance at the First Fruits ceremony, as depicted by the artist Gerard Bhengu.
The basic social and economic unit in almost all southern African societies is that of the homestead. Except in a few exceptional cases, such as advanced senility, the head of the homestead was the eldest male. He enjoyed a position of considerable power, including authority in the spheres of religion, economy and social relations. His authority was derived from this genealogical seniority, and the status of the other males in the homestead also depended on their genealogical rank. Like children, women had rights and obligations, but were regarded as perpetual minors and excluded from a formal voice in homestead affairs. They could not inherit or pass on significant material goods. Chiefs replicated the functions of the homestead head on a larger scale. The economic power and control of the homestead head derived from the fact that he inherited the accumulated wealth of his forebears. The allocation of fields for cultivation and cattle was in his hands. He controlled social relations such as marriage through the possession of bride-wealth cattle.
A number of related homesteads formed a lineage, which would assist and advise each other when circumstances required. After several generations these ties may only have been recognisable by a common set of names, praises or – particularly among the Sotho-Tswana – a totemic animal. These common observances provided for the ties of clanship. The unity of the various clans differed. Among some clans, ties were quite strong – for example, through the recognition of one individual or family as head or chief; among others ties were diluted through the incorporation of newcomers, strangers or refugees. Thus some clans were controlled by powerful and recognised chiefs, whereas in other clans the leading figures exercised only ritualistic or religious control. Thus when the chief allocated lands, ordered the harvesting of the first fruits, went to war, or offered sacrifices for victory in war, he was acting for a collective of homestead heads. There was, however, no neat correlation between clanship and territorial occupation.Through the processes of segmentation and incorporation, no part of South Africa was inhabited by a single pure clan or chiefdom. Consequently, chieftainship derived from two imperatives; out of loyalty to the original clan of a locality, and out of the need to take collective action with unrelated groups when necessary, for example in defence, rainmaking and legal arbitration.
The Pitso, or public meeting, of the Tlhaping
The chief’s position as sole owner of land, people and property contained within it the seeds of hierarchy and domination. Chiefs were richer than commoners and used their positions of power to secure more wealth. They could squeeze their followers for more tribute or labour obligations. They could strip commoners of hard-earned riches through manipulation of witchcraft accusations and inheritance laws. Given such authoritarian stature, why were chiefs not cast off as tyrants? They were of course required to adjudicate laws, to protect the community in times of trouble, to provide food in times of famine and to invoke the spirits of the ancestors. Such chiefs needed to be politically astute if not downright cunning. Nevertheless, they were forced to recognise certain boundaries to their actions, but were no more immune than others to the pressures of brotherly rivalry.
All chiefs before the advent of standing armies in 1800 depended on the voluntary compliance of their subjects and needed to keep followers contented. A wise chief rarely acted against the will of his people, and would generally consult with his people and take the advice of the elders. Many cruel or stingy chiefs were simply abandoned or ousted and replaced by followers.
